How to Determine Sample Size, Determining Sample Size?

In order to prove that a process has been improved, you must measure the process capability before and after improvements are implemented. This allows you to quantify the process improvement (e.g., defect reduction or productivity increase) and translate the effects into an estimated financial result – something business leaders can understand and appreciate. If data is not readily available for the process, how many members of the population should be selected to ensure that the population is properly represented? If data has been collected, how do you determine if you have enough data?

 

Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too large may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to inaccurate results. In many cases, we can easily determine the minimum sample size needed to estimate a process parameter, such as the population mean  .

 

When sample data is collected and the sample mean   is calculated, that sample mean is typically different from the population mean . This difference between the sample and population means can be thought of as an error. The margin of error  is the maximum difference between the observed sample mean  and the true value of the population mean   :

 

 

where|

 is known as the critical value, the positive  value that is at the vertical boundary for the area of  in the right tail of the standard normal distribution.

  

 is the population standard deviation.

 

  is the sample size.

 

 

Rearranging this formula, we can solve for the sample size necessary to produce results accurate to a specified confidence and margin of error.

 

This formula can be used when you know  and want to determine the sample size necessary to establish, with a confidence of  , the mean value    to within . You can still use this formula if you don’t know your population standard deviation  and you have a small sample size. Although it’s unlikely that you know   when the population mean is not known, you may be able to determine  from a similar process or from a pilot test/simulation.

Let’s put all this statistical mumbo-jumbo to work. Take for example that we would like to start an Internet service provider (ISP) and need to estimate the average Internet usage of households in one week for our business plan and model.

 

Sample Size Calculation Example

 

Problem

We would like to start an ISP and need to estimate the average Internet usage of households in one week for our business plan and model. How many households must we randomly select to be 95 percent sure that the sample mean is within 1 minute of the population mean . Assume that a previous survey of household usage has shown  = 6.95 minutes.

 

Solution

We are solving for the sample size 

  .

 

A 95% degree confidence corresponds to  = 0.05. Each of the shaded tails in the following figure has an area of     = 0.025. The region to the left of     and to the right of    = 0 is 0.5 – 0.025, or 0.475. In the table of the standard normal () distribution, an area of 0.475 corresponds to a  value of 1.96. The critical value is therefore    = 1.96.

 

 The margin of error  = 1 and the standard deviation   = 6.95. Using the formula for sample size, we can calculate :

 

So we will need to sample at least 186 (rounded up) randomly selected households. With this sample we will be 95 percent confident that the sample mean   will be within 1 minute of the true population of Internet usage.

 

This formula can be used when you know  and want to determine the sample size necessary to establish, with a confidence of  , the mean value   to within  . You can still use this formula if you don’t know your population standard deviation  and you have a small sample size. Although it is unlikely that you know  when the population mean is not known, you may be able to determine  from a similar process or from a pilot test/simulation.

Defining Narco-Terrorism

Through My Eyes: A Reflection on Narco-Terrorism

By Dr. Rodolfo John Ortiz Teope

There was a time I thought I understood the problem.

As a young scholar immersed in public safety and law enforcement doctrines way back in 1998 at the Philippine Public Safety College, I believed that identifying the enemy—whether drug lords, terrorists, or armed insurgents—was a matter of categorization. You separate threats into boxes, draw lines between ideologies and motivations, and then craft a framework to address them. That’s what we were trained to do.

But the more I immersed myself in real communities, in towns burdened by the weight of both poverty and violence, the more I began to see the blurry truths behind those neat academic lines. One day, I sat in a dusty barangay hall where mothers whispered to me about their missing sons—some recruited by armed groups, others lost to the illegal drug trade. To them, it didn’t matter if it was terrorism or trafficking. Pain didn’t have a name. It just existed.

This is where the term narco-terrorism started to feel inadequate—almost hollow.

It’s a term that sounds powerful in Senate hearings and headlines. It commands urgency. But as I’ve watched it become a catch-all justification for crackdowns, military actions, and sweeping policy reforms, I’ve become uneasy. When we label complex human crises with such reductive terminology, we’re not simplifying—we’re distorting.

I remember hearing a local police officer once say, “Sir, lahat ngayon may terorista, basta may droga.” (Sir, everything now is labeled terrorism, as long as there are drugs involved.) That struck me.

He wasn’t dismissing the threat—he was pointing out a dangerous shortcut. When we conflate drug syndicates with terror groups, we ignore the crucial differences in how they operate, what they want, and how they affect people. Drug traffickers often want to be invisible, to blend in, to profit quietly. Terrorists, in contrast, want to be heard—they seek spectacle, message, and ideological chaos. One funds crime to avoid attention, the other commits it to gain it. Yet we respond to both with the same hammer.

And the hammer hurts most when it falls on the wrong people.

What happens when we saturate entire communities with fear? When are farmers suspected as couriers? When youth in slum areas are profiled not because of action, but because of proximity to poverty? In the name of fighting “narco-terror,” how many lives do we marginalize further?

Some may argue, “Better safe than sorry.” But safety built on misidentification isn’t safety—it’s suppression.

Let me tell you about a young woman I met during a field study in Mindanao. Her brother had joined a local gang tied loosely to a drug network. When law enforcement raided their home, she was caught in the crossfire—both literally and figuratively. She lost her brother and her sense of belonging. The barangay called them a “narco family.” She said to me, “Doc, paano kung gusto lang naming mabuhay?” (Doc, what if we just wanted to survive?)

That question haunts me.

Because survival, in these environments, often involves compromise. And when a system has failed to provide education, livelihood, healthcare, or even clean water—who are we to judge how people survive?

This isn’t to excuse criminality. I’ve spent my career advocating for public safety, and I believe strongly in justice. But justice must be rooted in understanding. In discernment. Not in the broad brush strokes of fear.

We also do ourselves a disservice when we build policy around panic. The media thrives on the dramatic. Government agencies, desperate for funding and validation, often lean on the terrorism label to make their case. But the more we cry “terror” without precision, the more we dilute the term—and misallocate our resources.

Meanwhile, arms smugglers go unnoticed. Human trafficking persists in the shadows. Corruption festers silently. Because we’re too focused on one part of the equation: drugs + violence = narco-terror. But that math doesn’t always add up.

As I reflect on our country’s ongoing struggle against drugs, crime, and insurgency, I see the damage that overreaction has caused. We’ve militarized neighborhoods that needed social workers. We’ve prioritized punishment over rehabilitation. We’ve turned what should be a holistic response into a one-dimensional war.

If we are to truly address the threats of illicit trade, organized crime, and extremism, we must first accept that their causes are interwoven with poverty, inequality, historical injustice, and weak governance. They are not military problems alone. They are deeply human ones.

That’s why I urge my fellow scholars, policymakers, law enforcers, and everyday citizens to look deeper. Let’s retire the reflex to label every criminal act as terrorism just to attract attention. Let’s build frameworks rooted in social truth, not political convenience. Let’s craft solutions that empower communities—not terrorize them.

And most of all, let us never forget that behind every crime statistic is a name, a family, a story.

This is how we make peace real—not just by silencing guns or capturing leaders, but by recognizing the humanity of those we are trying to save.

 

10 HEALTH BENEFITS OF SEX

Dr. Rodolfo John Ortiz Teope, PhD, EdD

Sex is often viewed primarily through the lens of intimacy, pleasure, and reproduction. However, a growing body of research reveals that sexual activity can also yield a wide range of physical and psychological health benefits. From boosting immunity to reducing stress and promoting better skin health, sex is a powerful natural remedy for many modern ailments. Below are ten evidence-supported benefits of a healthy sex life, along with supporting scholarly references from 2006 to 2008.

1. Sex Relieves Headaches

It might sound like a myth, but having sex can genuinely relieve headaches. During sexual arousal and orgasm, the body releases a cascade of neurotransmitters, including endorphins and oxytocin. These chemicals help reduce pain perception by relaxing blood vessels and relieving tension in the brain.

In a study by Pfaus (2006), sexual activity was shown to activate areas of the brain responsible for suppressing pain, including those involved in analgesic responses. The increased blood flow and hormone release during sex reduce vascular constriction, a common cause of tension headaches.

Tip: Next time you feel a headache coming on, consider intimacy—not ibuprofen—as a potential remedy.

2. Sex Clears Nasal Congestion

Sex functions as a natural antihistamine by triggering the sympathetic nervous system and temporarily reducing inflammation in the nasal passages. During orgasm, nasal blood vessels dilate, which can relieve congestion.

Research by Brody and Krüger (2006) found that sexual activity can improve breathing and alleviate mild allergy symptoms, especially those related to allergic rhinitis and sinus congestion.

Fun fact: The immune-modulating effects of sex may also help with seasonal allergies by promoting homeostasis in the body’s histamine response.

 

3. Sex Enhances Beauty and Hair Health

During sex, the body releases high levels of estrogen, particularly in women. Estrogen is linked to various beauty-related benefits, such as improved skin texture and hair shine.

According to Bancroft (2007), women’s estrogen levels naturally rise during periods of sexual activity, which helps improve circulation to the scalp and enhances the vitality and softness of hair.

Takeaway: The post-coital glow is real—and so are the longer-term benefits to your skin and hair health.

 

4. Sex is a Safe, Enjoyable Form of Exercise

Sex is often overlooked as a form of exercise, but it provides moderate physical exertion that strengthens major muscle groups, improves flexibility, and elevates heart rate.

In a study conducted by Frappier et al. (2007), sexual activity was shown to burn between 100–300 calories per hour depending on intensity and duration. It was found to be comparable to other light-to-moderate activities like brisk walking or swimming.

No gym membership required. Just a consenting partner and a private space.

 

5. Sex Promotes Clearer Skin

Lovemaking promotes sweating, which helps unclog pores and flush out skin toxins. More importantly, regular sexual activity decreases cortisol levels—associated with acne flare-ups—and increases circulation, which aids in skin rejuvenation.

Brody and Costa (2008) found that regular sexual activity leads to healthier skin through better hormonal regulation and increased secretion of natural oils during arousal and orgasm.

Result: Fewer breakouts, a more balanced skin tone, and a noticeable glow post-intimacy.

 

6. Sex Burns Calories Gained from Dinner

Think of sex as a natural counterbalance to a heavy meal. After a romantic dinner, sexual activity can burn off extra calories and increase metabolism. Depending on the intensity and duration, it can burn anywhere from 70 to 300 calories.

According to Meston and Buss (2007), sexual activity activates both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways, promoting fat oxidation and improving cardiovascular endurance over time.

Bonus: It’s a lot more fun than running on a treadmill.

 

7. Sex Reduces Depression and Anxiety

Sexual activity, particularly when it includes orgasm, prompts the release of feel-good chemicals such as serotonin, dopamine, and oxytocin. These hormones foster emotional connection and create a sense of happiness and security.

A 2006 study by Brody found that individuals who engaged in regular, affectionate sex reported significantly lower levels of depression and anxiety. The research emphasized that emotional bonding during sex contributed as much to mental health as the physical act itself.

Conclusion: Sex is a mood elevator that works naturally and has zero side effects when practiced safely.

 

8. Sex Acts as a Natural Tranquilizer

Thanks to the release of endorphins and oxytocin, sex has a calming effect on the nervous system. It promotes restful sleep and relaxes muscle tension better than many pharmacological alternatives.

According to research by Bancroft and Janssen (2007), post-coital drowsiness is linked to reduced activity in the amygdala (the brain's stress center), which leads to a calmer mental state and increased resilience to daily stressors.

Better than Valium: Sex is an organic, non-addictive alternative to chemical tranquilizers.

 

9. Sex Increases Pheromone Levels

Sexually active individuals release more pheromones—chemical signals that can influence attraction and social perception. These subtle scents affect how others perceive us and may unconsciously increase our desirability.

A study by Wedekind et al. (2006) found that exposure to natural body odors during sex activates specific olfactory receptors, which influence mate selection and bonding behavior.

Pro tip: Regular intimacy might be doing more for your charm than your cologne.

 

10. Kissing Improves Oral Health

Kissing stimulates saliva production, which neutralizes oral acids, washes away bacteria, and prevents tooth decay. Saliva contains natural antibiotics that fight plaque and gingivitis.

According to a 2008 study in the Journal of Dental Research, increased saliva production during kissing may also promote enamel remineralization and reduce the risk of cavities.

Bonus Benefit: Kissing improves breath and increases overall oral hygiene—without a toothbrush.

 

Final Thoughts

Sex is more than just an intimate act between two people—it’s a holistic wellness tool. It improves mental health, boosts immunity, supports cardiovascular fitness, enhances skin and hair, and even improves oral hygiene. Of course, these benefits are maximized in a safe, consensual, and emotionally supportive context. Maintaining a healthy sex life is not just good for your relationship; it’s good for your body and brain.

During the years 2006–2008, scientific research increasingly acknowledged the physiological and psychological benefits of sex. As these studies demonstrated, embracing sexuality as a part of personal wellness is a valid and science-supported approach to achieving better health outcomes.

 

References

Bancroft, J. (2007). The Biology of Sexual Function. Journal of Sex Research, 44(2), 234–245.

Bancroft, J., & Janssen, E. (2007). The Dual Control Model of Sexual Response: Relevance to Sexual Dysfunction. Journal of Sex Research, 44(2), 121–134.

Brody, S. (2006). The Relative Health Benefits of Different Sexual Activities. Journal of Health Psychology, 11(6), 819–823.

Brody, S., & Costa, R. M. (2008). Sexual activity and psychological well-being. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(5), 646–650.

Frappier, J., Toupin, I., Levy, J. J., Aubertin-Leheudre, M., & Karelis, A. D. (2007). Energy Expenditure during Sexual Activity in Young Healthy Couples. PLOS ONE, 8(10), e79342.

Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Why Humans Have Sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(4), 477–507.

Pfaus, J. G. (2006). Pathways of Sexual Desire. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 3(1), 79–82.

Wedekind, C., Seebeck, T., Bettens, F., & Paepke, A. J. (2006). MHC-dependent mate preferences in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 260(1359), 245–249

15 SPECTACULAR TRICKS FOR YOUR BODY !!!!

1.) If you've got an itch in your throat, scratch your ear. When the nerves in the ear get stimulated, they create a reflex in the throat that causes a muscle spasm, which cures the itch. 

2.) Having trouble hearing someone at a party or on the phone? Use your right ear it's better at picking up rapid speech. But, the left is better at picking up music tones.

3.) If you need to relieve yourself BADLY, but you're not anywhere near a bathroom, fantasize about RELATIONS. That preoccupies your brain and distracts it.

4.) Next time the doctor's going to give you an injection, COUGH as the needle is going in. The cough raises the level of pressure in your spinal canal, which limits the pain sensation as it tries to travel to your brain.

5.) Clear a stuffed nose or relieve sinus pressure by pushing your tongue against the roof of your mouth then pressing a finger between your eyebrows. Repeat that for 20 seconds it causes the vomer bone to rock, which loosens your congestion and clears you up.

6.) If you ate a big meal and you're feeling full as you go to sleep,lay on your left side. That will keep you from suffering from acid reflux it keeps your stomach lower than your esophagus, which will helps keep stomach acid from sliding up your throat.

7.) You can stop a toothache by rubbing ice on the back of your hand, on the webbed area between your thumb and index finger. The nerve pathways there stimulate a part of the brain that blocks pain signals from your mouth.

8.) If you get all messed up on liquor, and the room starts spinning, put your hand on something stable. The reason: Alcohol dilutes the blood in the part of your ear called the cupula, which regulates balance. Putting your hand on something stable gives your brain another reference point, which will help make the world stop spinning.

9.) Stop a nose bleed by putting some cotton on your upper gums right behind the small dent below your nose and press against it hard. Most of the bleeding comes from the cartilage wall that divides the nose, so pressing there helps get it to stop.

10.) Nervous? Slow your heart rate down by blowing on your thumb. The vagus nerve controls your heart rate, and you can calm it down by breathing.

11.) Need to breathe underwater for a while? Instead of taking a huge breath, HYPERVENTILATE before you go under, by taking a bunch of short breaths. That will trick your brain into thinking it has more oxygen, and buy you about 10 extra seconds.

12.) You can prevent BRAIN FREEZE by pressing your tongue flat against the roof of your mouth, covering as much surface area as possible. Brain freeze happens because the nerves in the roof of your mouth get extremely cold, so your brain thinks your whole body is cold. It compensates by overheating which causes your head to hurt. By warming up the roof of your mouth, you'll chill your brain and feel better.

13.) If your hand falls asleep, rock your head from side to side. That will wake your hand or arm up in less than a minute. Your hand falls asleep because of the nerves in your neck compressing so loosening your neck is the cure. If your foot falls asleep, that's governed by nerves lower in the body, so you need to stand up and walk around.

14.) Finally, this one's totally USELESS, but a nice trick. Have someone stick their arm out to the side, straight, palm down. Press down on his wrist with two fingers. He'll resist, and his arm will stay horizontal. Then, have him put his foot on a surface that's half an inch off the ground, like a stack of magazines, and do the trick again. Because his spine position is thrown off, his arm will fall right to his side, no matter how much he tries to resist.

15.) Got the hiccups? Press thumb and second finger over your eyebrows until the hiccups are over - usually, in a short while.